In this episode, I dive into the complex world of classifying modern Iranian languages. Understanding the distinction between languages and dialects isn't as straightforward as it seems. Traditionally, linguists use structural similarities and functional criteria to differentiate them, but real-life distinctions often involve factors like ethnic identity, language prestige, standardization, and geographical context. For example, while Persian is seen as the parent language, it shares close ties with varieties like Lori and Bandari, which are sometimes grouped together as 'Persian dialects'. The classification of languages in Iran is further complicated by varying lists of languages, ranging from official documents that list a handful to scholars who identify dozens or even up to 80 distinct languages. This discrepancy highlights the challenge of creating a single, definitive list. To address these challenges, I introduce a new, multi-dimensional approach to language classification. Traditional two-dimensional models, like the tree and wave models, have their limitations. The tree model, dating back to the 19th century, traces historical divergence from common ancestors, while the wave model accounts for language contact and shared innovations. Although the wave model offers a more nuanced view, it still struggles with the complexity of languages like those in Iran. Since 2015, teams of linguists and designers have been developing a 3D 'Multi-Dimensional Language Relation Web' to better visualize these complexities. This model uses a force-directed graph to display languages as nodes with detailed information and illustrates various types of connections, including genealogical inheritance, structural similarity through contact, and ethnic association. This approach aims to provide a clearer, more interactive overview of the intricate relationships between Iran’s languages. In the next episode, I’ll explore modern Iranian languages, and in particular Persian | *Farsi*

External Links:

• For Historical Glottometry check here
• For NeighborNet check here
• For Classification of Iran's Languages check here
• For Langauage Tree Diagrams, check here

Iranian Languages and Dialects, Part III: Middle Persian

Before you listen to this episode, I encourage you to check my previous episodes on Iranian languages and Dialects, particularly the one on Old Persian, which serve as prerequisites for this part. Middle Iranian refers to various now-extinct Iranian languages spoken from about the 4th century B.C.E. to after the Islamic conquest. These languages include Middle Persian (Pahlavi), Parthian, Bactrian, Chorasmian, Sogdian, and Khotanese. Middle Persian, known from inscriptions and Manichean texts from the 3rd century C.E., evolved from Old Persian. It was written in scripts derived from Aramaic and Syriac alphabets. The main Middle Persian religious texts are the Dēnkard and the Bundahišn. The Dēnkard discusses theological issues, wisdom texts, and the life of Zarathustra. The Bundahišn focuses on Zoroastrian cosmology. Other notable texts include the Dādestān ī Mēnōy ī Xrad, Dādestān ī Dēnīg, Nāmagīhā ī Manuščihr, and the Ardā Wirāz-nāmag. In the upcoming episodes, we will explore Iranian languages further, starting with Persian, also known as Parsi | Farsi.

Iranian Languages and Dialects, Part II: Old Persian

This episode delves into the rich history of Old Persian and Middle Iranian epigraphy, exploring the evolution and significance of inscriptions and manuscripts from the pre-Islamic period. We begin by defining inscriptions and manuscripts, noting the materials they were crafted on and their various purposes, from public proclamations to administrative documents. We then examine the classification of inscriptions by size, language, and style, with notable examples such as the monumental inscription of Darius I at Bīsotūn. The discussion highlights the primary Iranian languages used in inscriptions: Old Persian, Middle Persian, Parthian, Chorasmian, Sogdian, and Bactrian. These inscriptions, often trilingual, reflect the multinational nature of the Achaemenid, Parthian, Sasanian, and Kushan empires, necessitating attention to non-Iranian languages like Babylonian, Elamite, Aramaic, Greek, Sanskrit, and Middle Indian. The episode also addresses the underdeveloped state of Iranian epigraphy, with significant contributions from the Corpus Inscriptionum Iranicarum and other key archaeological reports. We then explore the pivotal discoveries and methodologies that advanced the field, including the identification and decipherment of Old Persian by early scholars. The episode concludes with an overview of the Old Persian royal inscriptions found across various sites, their linguistic significance, and the insights they provide into Achaemenid administration and culture.

For a better understanding, please review my previous episode on Iranian Languages and Dialects, Part I which serves as a preamble to this discussion.

Iranian Languages and Dialects

In this episode (originally based on my lecture series on Indo-European Linguistics at the FSU Jena), I present a concise study of modern Iranian dialects, examining their historical development, linguistic features, regional differences, and sociolinguistic roles. The aim is to present these topics clearly for students, language enthusiasts, migrants with language heritage, and anyone curious about languages. I begin by clarifying the complex distinction between "languages" and "dialects." While contemporary linguistics often finds this distinction clear, historical contexts make it more challenging. Historically, what we consider a "dialect" might be viewed as a "language" today. For instance, Swedish and Norwegian, though separate languages, are mutually intelligible due to their shared North Germanic roots. Conversely, Mandarin and Cantonese, despite being called dialects of Chinese, are mutually unintelligible and use different writing systems. The Iranian language family, part of the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European family, includes diverse dialects spoken across the Iranian plateau and beyond. These languages are categorized into Old, Middle, and New Iranian stages. Persian, the only language documented across all three stages, evolved from Old Persian of the Achaemenid Empire to Middle Persian of the Sasanian era, and finally to New Persian influenced by the Arab conquest. Proto-Iranian, the precursor to these languages, originated from Proto-Indo-Iranian and is linked to Proto-Indo-European. Iranian languages have spread from Central Asia to Europe and beyond, with notable modern languages including Persian, Ossetic, Kurdish, Baluchi, and Pashto. This episode will explore various Iranian dialects, such as Lori, Baḵtiāri, and Baluchi, and discuss isoglosses—phonetic, grammatical, and lexical features that differentiate these dialects. Understanding these elements helps reveal the linguistic richness and sociolinguistic importance of modern Iranian dialects.

Please feel free to send any comments or feedback to my email: grammaticafranca@gmail.com

Thanks!

This episode is an excerpt of my lecture on general linguistics at the University of Bern (Switzerland) in 2009.

Here are some Key Information:

Colonial Lnguistics examines how colonial powers used language for control and the lasting impacts on indigenous languages. This episode covers historical contexts, theoretical foundations, impacts on indigenous languages, identity, postcolonial and decolonial perspectives, and contemporary relevance. European colonial expansion used language as a tool for control, with missionaries documenting and altering indigenous languages. Colonial administrations promoted European languages in education, marginalizing indigenous tongues. Theoretical insights from Bourdieu’s linguistic capital and Fanon's analysis of colonialism show how colonial languages conferred power and reshaped identities, often devaluing indigenous languages. Colonialism caused language shift, death, and the creation of creoles and pidgins. Efforts to revitalize endangered languages, such as Judo Persian, persist. Language is key to identity, with colonial policies creating linguistic hierarchies and internalized inferiority among indigenous language speakers. Indigenous communities resist by preserving and revitalizing their languages. Postcolonial states balance the use of colonial and indigenous languages, promoting multilingualism and challenging colonial ideologies. Digital platforms provide new opportunities and challenges for linguistic diversity.

Cyrus Cylinder: A Comparative Approach

This lecture is part of my series on Iranian history delivered at the Zoroastrian Cultural Center in California during the summer of 2019.

Notes to this Episode:

• The Cyrus Cylinder is a barrel-shaped baked clay tablet, approximately 10 inches long, engraved in Babylonia in 539 BC. Discovered in the ruins of Babylon in present-day Iraq, the cylinder is inscribed in Akkadian Babylonian cuneiform, detailing Cyrus the Great’s (601-530 BC) conquest of Babylon in 539 BC. Originally intended as a foundation deposit rather than for exhibition, it is not visually striking but serves as a significant document of statecraft. The cylinder reflects a long Mesopotamian tradition, dating as early as the third millennium BC, where monarchs began their reigns with declarations of reforms. The cylinder was found in March 1879. The great debate on the trustworthiness of Hebrew scriptures arose with the 1917 Balfour Declaration, 40 years after its discovery. There were two notable exhibitions in Tehran, one in 1971 and another in 2010, held under different circumstances. Cyrus claims: As a Persian King, I was called by Marduk, the Babylonian deity, to help the Babylonians, echoing narratives in the Old Testament. Marduk is neither a Persian nor an Iranian god, and the Akkadian language in which the cylinder is inscribed is not Iranian. If Cyrus intended to leave a legacy for Iranians, he would have had it written in Elamite, Old Persian, or at least Aramaic, the lingua franca of the Persian Empire. A modern analogy might be Napoleon’s arrival in Egypt in 1798, or John F. Kennedy’s "Ich bin ein Berliner" speech in West Berlin on June 26, 1963, widely regarded as a pivotal moment in the Cold War. Cyrus and his genealogy, his deeds as evidence of legitimacy, ensured 200 years of stability until disrupted by Alexander. The Cyrus Cylinder is captivating due to Cyrus's unique strategy compared to other monarchs: - Ruler-faith constitution or ruler being hostile to religion. - Clemency, benevolence, generosity, and justice. - Multilingual, multiethnic, multireligious cosmopolitanism, or ‘multiculturalism’. The text is written in Babylonian Akkadian, not Persian, conveying the message: I am Babylonian; I appreciate your cultural, religious, and linguistic legacy. This stance contrasts with the Old Testament's Isaiah passage. Cyrus maintained an equidistance from religion, akin to a constitutional principle observed in India. While not akin to modern democracy, it was considered fair, as evidenced by even Iran’s arch-enemies, the Greeks, who remembered him as a just and righteous king in Xenophon’s *Cyropaedia*. Cyrus’s exceptionalism is highlighted in the *Expedition of Cyrus* and *Cyropaedia*.

This is a reading of Oscar Wilde's masterpiece, "The Happy Prince," which I translated into Persian over 30 years ago while I was an undergraduate student in Shiraz.

این خوانشی از شاهکار اسکار وایلد «شاهزاده خوشبخت» است که من بیش از سی سال پیش هنگامی که دانشجوی کارشناسی در شیراز بودم آن را به فارسی ترجمه کردم. امیدوارم از شننیدن آن لذت ببرید، من به شخصه هرگاه که این داستان را می خوانم بی اختیار اشک از چشمانم سرازیر می شود!